Sharing Scotland's medical history
Operating as usual
This illustration is from a text by Pieter Paaw which was published in 1616. Paaw was a Dutch botanist and anatomist. He was the first Anatomy Professor at the University of Leiden. He established the first anatomical dissection theatre in the Netherlands and was the first anatomist to carry out public dissections. These dissections were not only attended by students but by curious members of the public who would pay a fee to attend.
This title page is taken from a text by Gottfried Welsh, a German physician in the 1600s. Welsh was one of the founders of German forensic medicine, and remembered for introducing fundamental criteria for evaluation of fatal wounds and poisonings.
The last opening of our exhibition for 2022 will be 22 Dec – after that we’re closed for Christmas, reopening on 4 Jan. Happy holidays everyone! https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/heritage/food-recipe-or-remedy
Emetics were substances which caused vomiting. In Scotland they were often known as a Puke (or Puek). Emetics were a common treatment for many complaints. Like bloodletting and laxatives, they supposedly removed the ‘bad’ humours from the body that caused disease.
Mustard and salt were common household emetics. With the rise of imported goods from the Americas in the 1700s more exotic ingredients began to be used, including Ipecacuanha which was derived from the root of a South American plant.
This illustration, by James Gillray, is titled ‘Gentle Emetic’. The use of the word ‘gentle’ in the title of this etching is certainly tongue-in-cheek. Emetics were an aggressive form of treatment, especially for those who were already suffering with a serious disease. In this case the effects of the emetic are clear - the bowl on the table is ready to collect the contents of the patient’s stomach.
Mark your calendars for our next exhibition ‘Skin: A Layered History’, launching on February 9th 2023. From wrinkles to stitches, explore the textured history of skin with us!
Virol was a health-aiding preparation created by Bovril in 1899. Resembling treacle, it contained bone marrow, malt extract, egg and syrup. Rich in vitamins A, B and D, it was sold by pharmacists and specifically targeted at pregnant women, children and the infirm.
Advertising claimed it strengthened the whole body and helped to grow strong bones. Slogans adopted included ‘School children need Virol’. According to one newspaper advertisement ‘Children love the flavour of Virol and they thrive on it’. Children were encouraged to take a daily spoonful but it could also be spread on toast and a powder form of Virol was available to dissolve in milk or water.
Virol was discontinued in the 1940s.
Ovaltine is a brand name for a powdered mixture of malt extract, dried milk, egg and cocoa. This product is the tablet form of Ovaltine, which was intended to be eaten without being dissolved.
Invented in 1863 by a scientist in Switzerland, Ovaltine was originally called Ovomaltine, a combination of ovo, the Latin for egg, and malt, one of the ingredients. It was exported to Britain in 1909 with the shortened name of Ovaltine. It increased in popularity after World War One because of its reputation as a nourishing and comforting drink.
It was included in the ration packs of soldiers in World War Two and specifically recommended for pilots because it was seen as aiding concentration and recuperating from the mental effort of flying long missions.
A porringer is a low bowl or dish. Porringers owned by wealthy families were commonly made from silver. For the less well-off they could be wooden or, like the one on display here, pewter.
Porringers are often associated with the serving of porridge but the term porridge in the 1700s was much broader than it is now. ‘Onion porridge’ was a common type of soup.
Porringers were used as measuring tools when cooking and as gravy boats. They were also used for bloodletting, with one surgeon writing in 1617 that ‘Blood porringers are necessary at Sea, to be the more certaine of the quantity of blood which is taken, since the blood of a man is so pretious [precious] a thing’.
Many ingredients in curry powder, including turmeric and cumin, have been used for medicinal purposes for thousands of years.
Originally from India, curry was introduced into Britain via the Silk Road trade routes. Curry first began to appear in British cookbooks from the 1740s. Apothecaries began to sell curry powder and physicians studied its medicinal properties.
One Victorian publication, advertising disguised as a medical text, was ‘Curries, their properties, and healthful and medicinal qualities’. Its author claimed that curry was a stimulant and was anti-bilious, anti-spasmodic, anti-flatulent, soothing and invigorating. With the usual hyperbole of Victorian advertising the text claimed that the consumption of curry could end poverty in Britain and save the lives of those who had been 'brought to the brink of the grave'.
Fishwives, or ‘oyster lasses’, were common figures in the streets of 1700s Edinburgh. The nearest fishing station to the city centre was in Newhaven, two miles away, and the women would walk from Newhaven to Edinburgh’s Old Town carrying the heavy fish creels on their backs.
In the 1700s and 1800s oysters were so plentiful that they were considered as cheap snack foods. They were eaten in such quantities that the Bank of Scotland on the Mound now sits on top of a giant heap of discarded oyster shells. The shells themselves, when ground up, were taken to relieve heartburn.
Oysters were so popular that an act of parliament was passed in 1840 which criminalised the stealing of oysters from fisheries. The punishment for the crime was imprisonment for one year.
In the 1700s far more medicines received royal patents than any other invention. Anyone could get a royal patent for a medicine – its formula had to be unique, but there was no need to prove that it worked.
Opportunists cashed in on the popularity of home remedies and self-diagnosing to create pre-made medicines which could be bought for home use.
This patent medicine, Gregory’s Stomachic Powder, was named after its creator James Gregory. Gregory was Professor of Medicine at the University of Edinburgh and personal physician to the king.
Its characteristic pink colour comes from the rhubarb it contains. Gregory grew the rhubarb used in his medicine at his home in Morningside.
These gelatine lamels were developed for use at the battlefront. They contain individual gelatine squares infused with a range of medicines. These include morphine, aspirin, essence of ginger, quinine and co***ne. They were meant to treat common ailments, including headaches and fevers, rather than more serious battlefield injuries.
To take a lamel, the patient would allow the drug-infused gelatine sheet to sit on their tongue. The gelatine would melt and the drug would be released and absorbed by the body. This kind of lamel kit was not provided by the military, but it was typical of the type of item available for private purchase by servicemen.
The company who developed this medicine, Savory & Moore, were the official medical suppliers of the War Office and the Royal Family. They were eventually taken over by Lloyds Pharmacy.
When the English physician John Woodward wrote a medical study in 1718, he opened with ‘the Beginnings of all Things, good or bad, to the Body, are in the Stomach’.
The stomach, then, was at the centre of medical treatment and believed to be the central root of disease. Intestinal problems such as constipation and diarrhoea were frequent complaints. In Scotland a lack of access to fresh fruit and vegetables combined with an offal and starch-heavy diet meant gastric complaints were commonplace.
Home remedies for purges and laxatives contained familiar, easy to find ingredients including liquorice, aniseed and oranges, herbs and other medicinal plants. E***a kits, such as this one, were developed for those who were unable, or unwilling, to visit their doctor to have the procedure carried out. Regular e***as, even for those without any medical ailments, were recommended by many Victorian doctors as a way of maintaining health. While the e***a had medicinal uses, it was one of many ‘fad’ health trends that spread across Britain in the late 1800s. E***as, also known as clysters, have been in common use throughout recorded history, with writings existing from Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome.
Photos from Physicians’ Gallery at RCPE's post
Our Remote and Rural Remedies exhibition is now on tour! Visit Gairloch Museum to check out our Culloden medicine chest and discover the history of Highlands and Islands medicine
Find out more 👉 https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/heritage/gairloch-remote-rural-remedies
The origins of ideas around bloodletting lie within the humoural system, which dates back to at least the time of Ancient Egypt.
According to this system there were four humours in the body: yellow bile, black bile (also known as choler), phlegm and blood. Alongside these humours, there were four corresponding temperaments – you could be phlegmatic, choleric, sanguine or melancholy. These corresponded with the four elements (earth, air, fire and water), the four seasons (Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter), the four ages of man (childhood, adolescence, maturity and old age) and the four states of hot, cold, moist and dry.
Maintaining health was all about balancing these four humours. If you were ill that meant your humours were out of balance. A person could have too much humoural blood and so bleeding would make them more balanced – it would make them colder and drier. Bloodletting became the standard treatment for a wide range of diseases – from plague, cancer and smallpox, to rheumatism, acne and headaches.
Check out our latest podcast episode where we explore the history of public health, including the impact of unclean water, food shortages, marshy land and slaughter houses.
We then speak to Professor Mahmood Adil who has 25 years of experience working in public health in the NHS and the United States.
And, to finish off, we look at one of the most important moments in the history of public health - John Snow and the Broad Street pump.
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https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/heritage/casenotes-past-and-present
This book, by César Lombroso, brought about a shift in criminology from the study of crime to the pseudo-scientific study of criminals.
Lombroso spent most of his career in Italy, working first as a professor of psychiatry, then director of a mental asylum before moving into forensic medicine and criminal anthropology.
Lombroso argued that criminality was hereditary, and that the criminal’s urge to get tattoos was one way they could be identified – even before they committed a crime. According to Lombroso – ‘Tattooed persons who are not in prison are either latent criminals or degenerate aristocrats. If someone who is tattooed dies in freedom, then he does so a few years before he would have committed murder’.
He went even further – exploring the different forms of tattoos and their meanings – the type of criminal you were was shown, according to Lombroso, by which part of your body was tattooed and the tattoos symbolic meaning – which he divided into war, love/sex, religion and occupation.
Our latest podcast episode is all about renal medicine. Examining how difficult it was to uncover what was happening inside the body before medical advances in the 1800s. Theories around how the kidney worked, and what to do when it failed, are uncovered – alongside some very strange attempts at treatment.
We also talk to Professor Neil Turner about what it is like to work as a nephrologist today.
And we finish by exploring the first successful example of kidney dialysis – which trialled on a N**i collaborator.
Check it out here 👉 https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/heritage/casenotes-past-and-present
One of our more unusual collections is a forensic collection of weapons, dating from the late 1800s and early 1900s. The collection belonged to Sydney Smith. Sydney was a renowned forensic pathologist and expert witness. He was a New Zealander who worked in New Zealand and Egypt before returning to Edinburgh, where he had studied, as a forensic expert and lecturer.
Explore the contents of this collection here – https://bddy.me/3cBtCmL
Photos from Physicians’ Gallery at RCPE's post
"The temperance or rather starvation in which they live as well as the salubrity of the dreary & desolate wastes in which we are imprisoned make them feel their miseries less painfully than they would otherwise do" (John McIntyre, Shetland, 1850)
Scotland’s poor relief system was separate to that of England. The history of poor relief in Scotland is usually split into two periods, the ‘Old Poor Law’, which existed up to 1845, and the ‘New Poor Law’ which was introduced in that year.
Although limited medical services were supplied, the sick poor had little access to medicine, or even basic shelter and food. Find out more on our blog: https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/remoteandruralremedies/activities/blogs/povertyandtheclearances.html
Check out our new podcast episode on genito-urinary medicine - exploring venereal disease, suspicious women and being 'torn and mangled by merciless Surgeons' in the removal of bladder stones
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https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/heritage/talks/past-present-genito-urinary
Older women, or ‘wise women’, were often associated with folk healing. It was common practice to hand over what were seen at the time as the more ‘menial’ tasks to the women. While they were not always regarded as equally qualified compared to male doctors and surgeons, the women who provided medical aid and assistance were often closer to the community and it was easier for them to build up a relationship of trust.
Find out more about women's role in Scottish medicine on our blog: https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/remoteandruralremedies/activities/blogs/femalemedicalpractitioners.html
Check out our latest podcast episode on the past and present of rheumatology. Dubious diagnoses, a bit of class prejudice and sexism and 18th century occupational health are all in here.
Then we talk to Professor Frances Williams about her experiences working as a consultant rheumatologist.
And, to finish off, we explore Ruben’s The Three Graces and the perils of diagnosing historical figures, both real and fictional, with 21st century diseases.
Check it out here 👉 https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/heritage/casenotes-past-and-present
In 1851 the College produced Resolutions making it clear that we would not admit a homeopathist, or those who associated with homeopathists, to membership of the College, and would bar anyone who defected to that camp. From then on self-proclaimed homeopathists were barred. We do however have homeopathic medicine chests in our collections – including this one which is from the Homeopathic Hospital in Liverpool.
Our latest podcast episode is all about palliative care. Exploring the history of euthanasia and hospices – right up to the 1970s.
We also talk to Dr Jeena Ackroyd, a Consultant in Palliative Medicine, about her experiences and insights into her work.
And we finish up with a historical case study – looking at the last days of the esteemed midwife, chloroform discoverer and President of our College James Young Simpson.
Check it out here - https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/heritage/casenotes-past-and-present
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In 1851 the College produced Resolutions making it clear that we would not admit a homeopathist, or those who associated with homeopathists, to membership of the College, and would bar anyone who defected to that camp. From then on self-proclaimed homeopathists were barred. We do however have homeopathic medicine chests in our collections – including this one which is from the Homeopathic Hospital in Liverpool.
Edward Jenner was the first doctor to test the long-held belief that anyone who has had cowpox was resistant to smallpox. In this work, first published in 1798, he described 23 cases of vaccination against smallpox. Jenner had been a student of the celebrated Scottish surgeon John Hunter and the two became great friends. They corresponded and exchanged ideas on a variety of topics, including the hibernation, migration and nesting habits of the cuckoo. In their correspondence on hedgehogs, Hunter famously wrote: “but why think, why not try the experiment”.
These gelatine lamels are infused with medicines, including paracetamol, cocaine and opium. They were developed for use by soldiers at the battlefront in the First World War so they were light, easy to carry, and easy to measure out doses – you could just tear off a square and place it in your mouth where it would dissolve on the tongue.
This pill box belonged to Edinburgh doctor James Young Simpson who is known for the discovery of the anaesthetic powers of chloroform. Simpson was Professor of Midwifery at the University of Edinburgh and, seeing the distress of his female patients during labour, was determined to find a solution. In the lid of the box you can see Simpson’s address – 52 Queen Street. At his home there he, and his two assistants, self-experimented on a range of chemicals to determine their anaesthetic properties before administering chloroform, passing out, and then waking up a few hours later – realizing that they had found the solution they were looking for.
This is a fairly typical nineteenth century medicine chest. Its contents include laudanum (for pain relief), quinine (for malaria, but also thought to act as a cure-all), jalap (a medicine made from plant roots which worked as a laxative) and bicarbonate of soda for flatulence.
In the 1860s the College needed more book storage and so the kitchen block standing behind the College was demolished and a new library was built on the site. The architect was David Bryce who also designed the Royal Infirmary and Fettes College. He based the New Library’s layout on the Bodleian at Oxford. The library now holds over 60,000 books, as well as manuscripts and medical objects.
This book, the ‘Dispensatory of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh’, was created to try and standardise medical practice in the 1700s. Without manuals, or standard procedures, each doctor would devise their own doses of medicine and treatments for different diseases. This book, therefore, was a significant step towards a professional and uniform approach to treating patients. 1700s medicine was far from what it is today though, and the book contains recipes involving treatments such as frog-spawn, bees and wood-lice.
Cockerels have long been associated with medicine and models of cockerels can be found across our College. According to mythology, the cockcrow heralds the dawn and Apollo’s light. In Greece cocks were symbols of virility and were often used in cockfighting and as sacrifices. Plato, in the Phaedo, relates the dying words of Socrates to Kriton who looked after his affairs: ‘We owe a cock to Asklepios. Be sure to pay the debt, and do not neglect to do so.’ Perhaps the payment was for the hemlock that cured Socrates of ‘life’s fitful fever’.
This is No. 8 Queen Street, the oldest building on Queen Street and one of the oldest in the whole of Edinburgh’s New Town. It was designed in the 1770s by Robert Adam, the influential Scottish architect who was also responsible for the university’s Old College buildings, and Register House. No. 8 was built for Robert Ord, who was then Chief Baron of the Scottish Court of the Exchequer. During his residency Ord entertained many notable members of Edinburgh society in these rooms, including the philosopher and essayist David Hume.
This medicine chest belonged to past president of the College Stuart Threipland. It was used to treat patients during the 1745 Jacobite Rising and Threipland acted as the physician-in-chief to Bonnie Prince Charlie throughout his campaign, including at the Battle of Culloden. It is believed, although not certain, that the chest was given to Threipland by the Prince himself. It contains 147 different medicines including mercury, turpentine and opium.
COVID-19 has affected millions of people worldwide. The College has embarked upon a COVID-19 archiving project, aiming to capture and preserve the experiences of healthcare professionals living and working through the pandemic.
In this short video Dr William Boyd discusses the historical developments in dementia treatment.
In this short video Dr Derek Doyle discusses the development of palliative care as a recognised field of medicine.
In this short video Sir John Crofton and Dr Helen Zealley discuss the history of anti-smoking campaigns and ASH (Action on Smoking and Health).
In this short video Dr Joyce Grainger and Dr Robert Kilpatrick discuss the experiences, and challenges, of women in 20th century medical education.
In this short video physicians discuss the history of geriatric medicine and its development as a medical specialty
In this short video physicians discuss the treatment of patients during the Second World War. This included patients wounded on the battlefield and men suffering from shellshock. Ronald Girdwood discusses the development of blood transfusion techniques, tropical diseases and penicillin.
Missing the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh ? This footage shows the College from the sky at our beautiful home on Queen Street
In this short video Dr James Gray, Dr Joyce Grainger and Dr Helen Zealley discuss the treatment and experiences of women in the 20th century medical workplace.
In this short video Dr Christopher Clayson and Dr David Boyd discuss the history of the treatment of tuberculosis at Edinburgh’s Southfield Sanatorium.
Investigating the little things, or little people, inside our bodies. In this short talk Professor Helen King examines historical understandings of the body, using metaphors of war, of factories, and of houses. These ideas of workmen, of soldiers and of domestic architecture helped to explain the body and its workings. Professor King worked at the OU from 2011 to 2017 and is now a Visiting Professor within Politics and International Studies at the University of Warwick.
When one of Scotland's greatest Enlightenment poets, Robert Fergusson, died in Edinburgh's Bedlam this began a chain reaction which led to the establishment of Edinburgh's first public mental hospital. In this short talk Professor David Purdie discusses the eminent eighteenth century physician and President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh Andrew Duncan and his role in the foundation of the Royal Edinburgh Hospital.
Opening up the body through mummification, animal dissection and leaps of imagination. In this short talk Professor Helen King uncovers the history of animal dissection and the assumptions made by those trying to uncover the secrets within the human body during periods when dissection of humans was considered taboo. Professor King worked at the OU from 2011 to 2017 and is now a Visiting Professor within Politics and International Studies at the University of Warwick.
In this short video Edinburgh physicians discuss poverty in Leith and its impact on health from the late 1800s to the 1990s. Dr James Gray discusses the work of his grandfather, a medical officer in Leith in the 1880s and 1890s. Sailors would bring diseases, such as typhus, into the port of Leith and insufficient hospital accommodation meant the infectious and non-infectious cases mixed together. Rickets was a common complaint. Public health initiatives such as reductions in overcrowding, rehousing and changes to nutrition all had positive impacts on health. Although these were not always unqualified successes – many buildings were condemned but were not destroyed and were then occupied by squatters. Some residents were moved out of Leith to Wester Hailes, a move which proved unpopular among many individuals.
Spleens, germs, wombs and menstruation. In this short talk Professor Helen King takes us into the body – exploring some of the ways in which understanding of our bodies has changed since ancient Greece and Rome. She considers how doctors today work with their patients' beliefs, and starts to explore how people in the past had their own ideas about bodies and body parts. Professor King worked at the OU from 2011 to 2017 and is now a Visiting Professor within Politics and International Studies at the University of Warwick.
When James Young Simpson discovered the anaesthetic powers of chloroform it rapidly became the preferred form of anaesthetic for women in childbirth, including Queen Victoria herself. Professor David Purdie is a medical Professor Emitus and spent much of his career in academia and research focusing on the diagnosis and treatment of the brittle bone disease, Osteoporosis. Since his retirement in 2007 David has devoted his attention to researching, writing and public speaking, particularly on the subject of the Scottish Enlightenment. In this short talk David discusses the eminent nineteenth century physician and President of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh James Young Simpson and his central role in the development and use of chloroform.
This tour tells the story of mental health, from witchcraft and home remedies to straitjackets and ECT. This exhibition took place at the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh from 14 June 2019 to 28 February 2020. The illustrations, books and objects displayed in this exhibition show the changing understanding of mental health over the last 500 years. This is not simply a history of psychiatry, although that is an important part of this story. It also includes mental health experiences which date from long before the profession of psychiatry existed and uncovers the self-help remedies of those who never came into contact with medical professionals. Additionally it considers the role of physicians, including Fellows and Members of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, in the support for and treatment of these conditions. This exhibition encourages us to examine our own ideas around mental health and aims to show how, even now, many older stereotypes and ideas about these conditions remain unchanged. For more information about this and other exhibitions visit rcpe.ac.uk/heritage
The Virtual Wee Museum of Leith
The Wee Museum of Memory